History of Education in the United States

Critical Analyses and Landmark Studies

• Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools and A Fifteen-Year Consideration by Jonathan Kozol
  Kozol’s work is a seminal investigation into the disparities in school funding and quality between wealthy and poor communities, based on extensive fieldwork and interviews.

• What Does it Mean to be Well Educated? by Alfie Kohn
  This collection of essays questions the focus on standardized testing and grades, probing deeper questions about the purpose and outcomes of American schooling.

• The One Best System: A history of American urban education by David Tyack
  The book is considered essential reading for educators and anyone interested in the history and equity of American education. This book is considered essential reading for educators and anyone interested in the history and equity of American education

• Color in the Classroom: How American Schools Taught Race1900-1954 by Z Burkholder
  historical analysis of how American schools and teachers shaped and influenced the social construction of race during the first half of the 20th century.

• The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 by James Anderson
  Is a critically acclaimed landmark historical study by James D. Anderson that reinterprets African-American education in the southern United States from the Reconstruction era through the Great Depression.

• The Irony of Early School Reform by M.B. Katz
  Critically examines the origins and realities of public-school reform in mid-19th century Massachusetts. The book is considered one of the first radical revisionist histories of American education, prompting new debate about the true motives and impacts of school reform.

• Schooling in Capitalist America by Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis: This book famously critiques how schools perpetuate social inequalities, arguing that education in the U.S. is designed to produce compliant workers and reinforce the economic status quo

• The Coleman Report (1966) and it's critiques: 

  • The "Equality of Educational Opportunity" report, commonly known as the Coleman Report, marked a significant paradigm shift in understanding the relationships among poverty, inequality, and schooling. However, in more than a half century later, since the 1966 Coleman Report, scholars have yet to develop a consensus regarding the relationship between schools and inequality. The Coleman Report suggested that schools play little role in generating achievement gaps, but social scientists have identified many ways in which schools provide better learning environments to advantaged children compared to disadvantaged children. As a result, a critical perspective that views schools as engines of inequality dominates contemporary sociology of education.   
  • The Coleman Report and Its Critics: The Contested Meanings of Educational Equality in the 1960s and 1970s
  • The historical significance of the Coleman report

  • Fifty Years since the Coleman Report: Rethinking the Relationship between Schools and Inequality

Scholarly Contributions and Classic Texts

Noah Webster’s Speller and the New England Primer 

• Often referenced as foundational educational texts that shaped early American schooling and literacy.

Ellwood P. Cubberley – Public Education in the United States (1919, rev. 1934)

• One of the earliest comprehensive histories; very much in the “progress narrative” style, but hugely influential in shaping the field.

Merle Curti – The Social Ideas of American Educators (1935)

• A classic intellectual history that connects American educational thought with broader social and cultural ideas.

Lawrence A. Cremin – The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education, 1876–1957 (1961)

• Seminal analysis of the progressive education movement; won the Bancroft Prize.

• Lawrence Cremin’s multi-volume histories (noted in summaries and academic discussions) are widely cited for their depth and influence in shaping the academic study of U.S. educational history.

David Tyack – The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (1974)

• Landmark study of how bureaucratic “systems” of schooling developed, especially in urban context

Herbert M. Kliebard's Essays on Curriculum Studies (1992)

• This collection of 12 essays by Herbert M. Kliebard is considered seminal in the field of curriculum studies. Kliebard explores the historical events and theoretical principles that shaped the American curriculum, including the decline of the humanities curriculum and the influence of education reformers like John Dewey.

Carl Kaestle – Pillars of the Republic: Common Schools and American Society, 1780–1860 (1983)

• Definitive history of the common school movement and its role in shaping democratic ideals.

Key Historical Movements 

• The Common School Movement (1830s–1860s)

  Led by Horace Mann in Massachusetts, it advocated for free, universal, nonsectarian public education.
  Established the model for the U.S. public school system and emphasized moral and civic education.
   

• The Normal School Movement (mid-19th century)

  Focused on training teachers professionally.
  Pioneered standardized teacher preparation, particularly for women.
   

• The Progressive Education Movement (1890s–1920s)

  Advocated child-centered, experiential learning.
  Influenced by John Dewey, emphasizing critical thinking, democracy, and learning by doing.
   

• The Land-Grant University Movement (1862 onwards)

  Initiated by the Morrill Act, establishing universities focused on agriculture, science, and practical education. Democratized higher education and connected it to economic development.
   

• School Desegregation and Civil Rights (1950s–1970s)

  Led by landmark cases like Brown v. Board of Education (1954).
  Addressed racial segregation and inequities in schooling.
   

• Special Education and Disability Rights Movement (1970s–1990s)

  Advocated for inclusive education for students with disabilities.
  Key legislation: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
   

• Standardization and Accountability Era (1980s–present)

  Focus on testing, accountability, and measurable outcomes.
  Debates continue over equity, curriculum narrowing, and the role of standardized tests.

Women Figures 

Mary McLeod Bethune (1875–1955)

• Founded Bethune-Cookman College.
• Advocate for African American education and civil rights.
• Promoted leadership opportunities for Black women and youth.

Ella Flagg Young (1845–1918)

• First female superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools.
• Advocate for progressive education and teacher empowerment.

Catharine Beecher (1800–1878)

• Promoted education for women and teacher training programs.
• Influential in shaping women’s roles in early American education.

Jane Addams (1860–1935)

• Founder of Hull House in Chicago.
• Focused on social reform and education for immigrant children.
• Advocated experiential learning and community-based education.

Charlotte Hawkins Brown (1883–1961)

• Founded the Duke Ellington School of Education (or Palmer Memorial Institute).
• Promoted educational opportunities for African American students in the segregated South.

Lucy Sprague Mitchell (1878–1967)

• Founder of the Bank Street College of Education.
• Pioneer in progressive education and child-centered learning.

Key Historical Figures

Horace Mann (1796–1859)

• “Father of the Common School.”
• Promoted public education as foundational to democracy.

John Dewey (1859–1952)

• Progressive education advocate.
• Emphasized learning by doing and democratic schools.

Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826)

• Proposed public education and land-grant colleges.

Noah Webster (1758–1843)

• Created the New England Primer and spellers.
• Shaped early literacy and American identity.

Booker T. Washington (1856–1915)

• Advocated vocational education for African Americans post-Reconstruction.
• Was an author, educator, orator, philanthropist

W.E.B. Du Bois (1868–1963)

• Advocated higher education and leadership for African Americans.
• Was an African American writer, teacher, sociologist and activist whose work transformed the way that the lives of Black citizens were seen in American society. 

Contemporary Voices

• Jonathan Kozol – research on educational inequality.

• Alfie Kohn – critiques of standardized testing and education goals.

Recent Scholarship

Timelines

• “Historical Timeline of Public Education in the US” (Race Forward)
  This timeline highlights key legislative and social changes, such as the 1647 Massachusetts law mandating schools, the rise of public high schools, and the impact of immigration and industrialization on school policy

• Noah Webster Timeline: America’s Education Timeline via podcast

• History of IDEA: A Timeline of Special Education Law in the United States | GovFacts

• Historical Milestones in American Education - FutureEd U.S. Education Timeline: The events that have shaped the nation's schools and colleges

Landmark Court Cases

A list of landmark U.S. Supreme Court cases related to education, each having made significant impacts on various aspects of education law and policy:

• Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning "separate but equal" and marking a major civil rights milestone.

• Engel v. Vitale (1962): Ruled that state-sponsored prayer in public schools violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.

• Abington School District v. Schempp (1963): Extended the ban on religious activities in public schools, ruling school-sponsored Bible readings unconstitutional.

• Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969): Affirmed students' First Amendment rights to free speech and symbolic expression in schools as long as it doesn’t disrupt educational activities.

• New Jersey v. TLO (1985): Addressed students’ rights regarding searches and seizures in schools, allowing searches with reasonable suspicion rather than probable cause.

• Plyler v. Doe (1982): Ruled that states cannot deny free public education to children based on their immigration status, protecting undocumented children under the Equal Protection Clause.

• San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez (1972): Held that education is not a fundamental right under the Constitution and that disparities in school funding based on local property taxes do not violate the Equal Protection Clause.

• Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971): Established the Lemon Test for determining if government action violates the Establishment Clause, affecting funding and religious activities in schools.

• Bethel School District #43 v. Fraser (1987): Held that schools can prohibit lewd, obscene, or vulgar speech at school events.

• Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier (1988): Allowed schools to censor school-sponsored student publications if related to legitimate pedagogical concerns.

Landmark Legislation:

• Northwest Ordinance (1787) – Required land in new territories to be set aside for public schools, embedding education in U.S. expansion.

• Morrill Land-Grant Acts (1862, 1890) – Gave federal land to states to fund colleges (especially agricultural/mechanical, later historically Black colleges under the 1890 act).

• G.I. Bill (1944): Servicemen’s Readjustment Act: Pivotal in expanding access to higher education post-World War II, deeply influencing U.S. social mobility and the structure of higher education.

• Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965): Instrumental in channeling federal funds to schools and promoting educational access for disadvantaged students.

• Higher Education Act (1965) – Expanded federal aid to colleges/universities; created financial aid programs (Pell Grants, etc.).

• Title IX of the Education Amendments (1972) – Prohibited sex discrimination in federally funded education programs.

• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1975): Established the right to education for students with disabilities, shaping recent educational policy.

• No Child Left Behind Act (2001) – Major accountability law; emphasized standardized testing, school report cards, and consequences for failing schools.

• Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA, 2012) – Not a law, but significant policy expanding access to higher education for undocumented youth.

• Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA, 2015) – Replaced NCLB; gave states more flexibility while keeping focus on equity and accountability.